Chapter 4 Observation
CHAPTER OUTLINE AND OBJECTIVES
I. Overview
II. Sampling Behavior
· When a complete record of behavior cannot be obtained, researchers seek to obtain a representative sample of behavior.
· The extent to which observations may be generalized (external validity) depends on how behavior is sampled.
A. Time Sampling
· Time sampling refers to researchers choosing time intervals for making observations either systematically or randomly.
· When researchers are interested in events that happen infrequently, they rely on event sampling to sample behavior.
B. Situation Sampling
· Situation sampling involves studying behavior in different locations and under different circumstances.
· Situation sampling enhances the external validity of findings.
· Within situations, subject sampling may be used to observe some people in the setting.
III. Classification of Observational Methods
- Observational methods can be classified as “observation with intervention” or “observation without intervention.”
- Methods for recording behavior can be classified in terms of how much of the behavior is recorded.
IV. Observation Without Intervention
· The goals of naturalistic observation are to describe behavior as it normally occurs and to examine relationships among variables.
· Naturalistic observation helps to establish the external validity of laboratory findings.
· When ethical and moral considerations prevent experimental control, naturalistic observation is an important research strategy.
V. Observation with Intervention
· Most psychological research uses observation with intervention.
· The three methods of observation with intervention are participant observation, structured observation, and the field experiment.
A. Participant Observation
· Undisguised participant observation is often used to understand the culture and behavior of groups of individuals.
· Disguised participant observation is often used when researchers believe individuals would change their behavior if they knew it was being recorded.
· Participant observation allows researchers to observe behaviors and situations that are not usually open to scientific observation.
· Participant observers may sometimes lose their objectivity or may unduly influence the individuals whose behavior they are recording.
B. Structured Observation
· Structured observations are set up to record behaviors that may be difficult to observe using naturalistic observation.
· Structured observations are often used by clinical and developmental psychologists.
· Problems in interpreting structured observations can occur when the same observation procedures are not followed across observations or observers, or when important variables are not controlled.
C. Field Experiments
· In a field experiment, researchers manipulate one or more independent variables in a natural setting to determine the effect on behavior.
VI. Recording Behavior
· The goals of observational research determine whether researchers seek a comprehensive description of behavior or a description of only selected behaviors.
· How the results of a study are ultimately summarized, analyzed, and reported depends on how behavioral observations are initially recorded.
A. Qualitative Records of Behavior
· Narrative records in the form of written descriptions of behavior, and audio and video recordings are comprehensive records of observed behavior.
· Researchers classify and organize data from narrative records to test their hypotheses about behavior.
· Narrative records should be made during or soon after behavior is observed, and observers must be carefully trained to record behavior according to established criteria.
B. Quantitative Measures of Behavior
· Researchers often obtain quantitative measures such as frequency or duration of occurrence when they seek to describe specific behaviors or events.
· Quantitative measures of behavior use one of the four levels of measurement scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
· Rating scales, often used to measure psychological dimensions, are frequently treated as if they are interval scales even though they usually represent ordinal measurement.
· Electronic recording devices may be used in natural settings to record behavior and pagers sometimes are used to signal participants to report their behavior (e.g., on a questionnaire).
VII. Analysis of Observational Data
A. Data Reduction
· Observational data are summarized through the process of data reduction.
· Researchers quantify the data in narrative records by coding behaviors according to specified criteria, for example, by categorizing behaviors.
· Data are summarized using descriptive measures such as frequency counts, means, and standard deviations.
B. Observer Reliability
· Interobserver reliability refers to the extent to which independent observers agree in their observations.
· Interobserver reliability is increased by providing clear definitions about behaviors and events to be recorded, by training observers, and by providing feedback about discrepancies.
· High interobserver reliability increases researchers’ confidence that observations about behavior are accurate (valid).
· Interobserver reliability is assessed by calculating percentage agreement or correlations, depending on how the behaviors were measured and recorded.
VIII. Thinking Critically About Observational Research
A. Influence of the Observer
· If individuals change their behavior when they know they are being observed (“reactivity”), their behavior may no longer be representative of their normal behavior.
· Research participants may respond to demand characteristics in the research situation to guide their behavior.
· Methods to control reactivity include unobtrusive (nonreactive) measurement, adaptation (habituation, desensitization), and indirect observations of behavior.
· Researchers must consider ethical issues when attempting to control reactivity.
B. Observer Bias
· Observer bias occurs when researchers’ biases determine which behaviors they choose to observe and when observers’ expectations about behavior lead to systematic errors in identifying and recording behavior.
· Expectancy effects can occur when observers are aware of hypotheses for the outcome of the study or the outcome of previous studies.
· The first step in controlling observer bias is to recognize that it may be present.
· Observer bias may be reduced by keeping observers unaware (“blind”) of the goals and hypotheses of the study.
IX. Summary
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
These review questions appear in the textbook (without answers) at the end of Chapter 4, and can be used for a homework assignment or exam preparation. Answers to these questions appear in italic.
1. Identify three characteristics of scientific observation that distinguish it from our everyday observation.
Scientific observation is made (1) under precisely defined conditions, (2) in a systematic and objective manner, and (3) with careful record keeping. (p. 95)
2. Explain why researchers use sampling in observational studies, and describe what the proper use of sampling is intended to accomplish.
Researchers frequently cannot obtain a complete record of behavior so they must sample behavior in particular times, settings, and conditions and with particular people. Researchers use time sampling and/or situation sampling to obtain a sample. This sample is used to represent the larger population of all possible behaviors. (p. 96)
3. Explain how the degree of intervention and the method of recording behavior can be used to classify observational methods.
Observational methods can be classified according to (1) how much the observer intervenes and (2) how comprehensively the behavior is recorded. Researchers can choose to use observation without intervention (naturalistic observation) or observation with intervention. Researchers gather a comprehensive record of behavior when all or nearly all of behavior is recorded. More often, researchers choose specific units of behavior to record to answer specific questions in a research study. (p. 99)
4. Describe a research situation in which naturalistic observation can be useful when ethical considerations prevent researchers from controlling aspects of human behavior.
Some researchers are interested in the nature of childhood aggression. However, it would be unethical to intervene by harassing children to observe their reactions. Researchers can observe naturally occurring aggression to describe childhood aggression. (pp. 100–101)
5. Identify three factors in participant observation that researchers need to consider to determine the extent of the observer’s influence on the behavior being observed.
Factors influencing the likelihood of the observer's influence are (1) disguised vs. undisguised observation, (2) the size of the group being observed, and (3) the role of the observer in the group. (p. 105)
6. Structured observation represents a compromise between naturalistic observation and laboratory experiments. What are the primary advantage and potential cost of this compromise?
The principal advantage of structured observation is that it permits observations to be made under conditions that are more natural than those imposed in a laboratory. The potential cost occurs when similar procedures are not followed each time an observation is made; this may make it more difficult for other observers to obtain similar results when investigating the same problem. (p. 108).
